Low-level IR in Mojo
Mojo is a high-level programming language with an extensive set of modern features. Mojo also provides you, the programmer, access to all of the low-level primitives that you need to write powerful -- yet zero-cost -- abstractions.
These primitives are implemented in MLIR, an extensible intermediate representation (IR) format for compiler design. Many different programming languages and compilers translate their source programs into MLIR, and because Mojo provides direct access to MLIR features, this means Mojo programs can enjoy the benefits of each of these tools.
Going one step further, Mojo's unique combination of zero-cost abstractions with MLIR interoperability means that Mojo programs can take full advantage of anything that interfaces with MLIR. While this isn't something normal Mojo programmers may ever need to do, it's an extremely powerful capability when extending a system to interface with a new datatype, or an esoteric new accelerator feature.
To illustrate these ideas, we'll implement a boolean type in Mojo below, which we'll call OurBool. We'll make extensive use of MLIR, so let's begin with a short primer.
What is MLIR?
MLIR is an intermediate representation of a program, not unlike an assembly language, in which a sequential set of instructions operate on in-memory values.
More importantly, MLIR is modular and extensible. MLIR is composed of an ever-growing number of "dialects." Each dialect defines operations and optimizations: for example, the 'math' dialect provides mathematical operations such as sine and cosine, the 'amdgpu' dialect provides operations specific to AMD processors, and so on.
Each of MLIR's dialects can interoperate with the others. This is why MLIR is said to unlock heterogeneous compute: as newer, faster processors and architectures are developed, new MLIR dialects are implemented to generate optimal code for those environments. Any new MLIR dialect can be translated seamlessly into other dialects, so as more get added, all existing MLIR becomes more powerful.
This means that our own custom types, such as the OurBool type we'll create below, can be used to provide programmers with a high-level, Python-like interface. But "under the covers," Mojo and MLIR will optimize our convenient, high-level types for each new processor that appears in the future.
There's much more to write about why MLIR is such a revolutionary technology, but let's get back to Mojo and defining the OurBool type. There will be opportunities to learn more about MLIR along the way.
Defining the OurBool type
We can use Mojo's struct keyword to define a new type OurBool:
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
A boolean can represent 0 or 1, "true" or "false." To store this information, OurBool has a single member, called value. Its type is represented directly in MLIR, using the MLIR builtin type i1. In fact, you can use any MLIR type in Mojo, by prefixing the type name with __mlir_type.
As we'll see below, representing our boolean value with i1 will allow us to utilize all of the MLIR operations and optimizations that interface with the i1 type -- and there are many of them!
Having defined OurBool, we can now declare a variable of this type:
fn uninitialized_our_bool():
var a: OurBool
fn uninitialized_our_bool():
var a: OurBool
Leveraging MLIR
Naturally, we might next try to create an instance of OurBool. Attempting to do so at this point, however, results in an error:
var a = OurBool() # error: 'OurBool' does not implement an '__init__' method
var a = OurBool() # error: 'OurBool' does not implement an '__init__' method
As in Python, __init__ is a special method that can be defined to customize the behavior of a type. We can implement an __init__ method that takes no arguments, and returns an OurBool with a "false" value.
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
fn __init__(out self):
self.value = __mlir_op.`index.bool.constant`[
value=__mlir_attr.false,
]()
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
fn __init__(out self):
self.value = __mlir_op.`index.bool.constant`[
value=__mlir_attr.false,
]()
To initialize the underlying i1 value, we use an MLIR operation from its 'index' dialect, called index.bool.constant.
MLIR's 'index' dialect provides us with operations for manipulating builtin MLIR types, such as the i1 we use to store the value of OurBool. The index.bool.constant operation takes a true or false compile-time constant as input, and produces a runtime output of type i1 with the given value.
So, as shown above, in addition to any MLIR type, Mojo also provides direct access to any MLIR operation via the __mlir_op prefix, and to any attribute via the __mlir_attr prefix. MLIR attributes are used to represent compile-time constants.
As you can see above, the syntax for interacting with MLIR isn't always pretty: MLIR attributes are passed in between square brackets [...], and the operation is executed via a parentheses suffix (...), which can take runtime argument values. However, most Mojo programmers will not need to access MLIR directly, and for the few that do, this "ugly" syntax gives them superpowers: they can define high-level types that are easy to use, but that internally plug into MLIR and its powerful system of dialects.
We think this is very exciting, but let's bring things back down to earth: having defined an __init__ method, we can now create an instance of our OurBool type:
var b = OurBool()
var b = OurBool()
Value semantics in Mojo
We can now instantiate OurBool, but using it is another story:
var a = OurBool()
var b = a # error: 'OurBool' does not implement the '__copyinit__' method
var a = OurBool()
var b = a # error: 'OurBool' does not implement the '__copyinit__' method
Mojo uses "value semantics" by default, meaning that it expects to create a copy of a when assigning to b. However, Mojo doesn't make any assumptions about how to copy OurBool, or its underlying i1 value. The error indicates that we should implement a __copyinit__ method, which would implement the copying logic.
In our case, however, OurBool is a very simple type, with only one "trivially copyable" member. We can use a decorator to tell the Mojo compiler that, saving us the trouble of defining our own __copyinit__ boilerplate. Trivially copyable types must implement an __init__ method that returns an instance of themselves, so we must also rewrite our initializer slightly.
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
fn __init__(out self):
self.value = __mlir_op.`index.bool.constant`[
value=__mlir_attr.false,
]()
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
fn __init__(out self):
self.value = __mlir_op.`index.bool.constant`[
value=__mlir_attr.false,
]()
We can now copy OurBool as we please:
var c = OurBool()
var d = c
var c = OurBool()
var d = c
Compile-time constants
It's not very useful to have a boolean type that can only represent "false." Let's define compile-time constants that represent true and false OurBool values.
First, let's define another __init__ constructor for OurBool that takes its i1 value as an argument:
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
# ...
fn __init__(out self, value: __mlir_type.i1):
self.value = value
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
# ...
fn __init__(out self, value: __mlir_type.i1):
self.value = value
This allows us to define compile-time constant OurBool values, using the alias keyword. First, let's define OurTrue:
alias OurTrue = OurBool(__mlir_attr.true)
alias OurTrue = OurBool(__mlir_attr.true)
Here we're passing in an MLIR compile-time constant value of true, which has the i1 type that our new __init__ constructor expects. We can use a slightly different syntax for OurFalse:
alias OurFalse: OurBool = __mlir_attr.false
alias OurFalse: OurBool = __mlir_attr.false
OurFalse is declared to be of type OurBool, and then assigned an i1 type -- in this case, the OurBool constructor we added is called implicitly.
With true and false constants, we can also simplify our original __init__ constructor for OurBool. Instead of constructing an MLIR value, we can simply return our OurFalse constant:
alias OurTrue = OurBool(__mlir_attr.true)
alias OurFalse: OurBool = __mlir_attr.false
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
# We can simplify our no-argument constructor:
fn __init__(out self):
self = OurFalse
fn __init__(out self, value: __mlir_type.i1):
self.value = value
alias OurTrue = OurBool(__mlir_attr.true)
alias OurFalse: OurBool = __mlir_attr.false
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
# We can simplify our no-argument constructor:
fn __init__(out self):
self = OurFalse
fn __init__(out self, value: __mlir_type.i1):
self.value = value
Note also that we can define OurTrue before we define OurBool. The Mojo compiler is smart enough to figure this out.
With these constants, we can now define variables with both true and false values of OurBool:
var e = OurTrue
var f = OurFalse
var e = OurTrue
var f = OurFalse
Implementing __bool__
Of course, the reason booleans are ubiquitous in programming is because they can be used for program control flow. However, if we attempt to use OurBool in this way, we get an error:
var a = OurTrue
if a: print("It's true!") # error: 'OurBool' does not implement the '__bool__' method
var a = OurTrue
if a: print("It's true!") # error: 'OurBool' does not implement the '__bool__' method
When Mojo attempts to execute our program, it needs to be able to determine whether to print "It's true!" or not. It doesn't yet know that OurBool represents a boolean value -- Mojo just sees a struct that is 1 bit in size. However, Mojo also provides interfaces that convey boolean qualities, which are the same as those used by Mojo's standard library types, like Bool. In practice, this means Mojo gives you full control: any type that's packaged with the language's standard library is one for which you could define your own version.
In the case of our error message, Mojo is telling us that implementing a __bool__ method on OurBool would signify that it has boolean qualities.
Thankfully, __bool__ is simple to implement: Mojo's standard library and builtin types are all implemented on top of MLIR, and so the builtin Bool type also defines a constructor that takes an i1, just like OurBool:
alias OurTrue = OurBool(__mlir_attr.true)
alias OurFalse: OurBool = __mlir_attr.false
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
# ...
fn __init__(out self, value: __mlir_type.i1):
self.value = value
# Our new method converts `OurBool` to `Bool`:
fn __bool__(self) -> Bool:
return Bool(self.value)
alias OurTrue = OurBool(__mlir_attr.true)
alias OurFalse: OurBool = __mlir_attr.false
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
# ...
fn __init__(out self, value: __mlir_type.i1):
self.value = value
# Our new method converts `OurBool` to `Bool`:
fn __bool__(self) -> Bool:
return Bool(self.value)
Now we can use OurBool anywhere we can use the builtin Bool type:
var g = OurTrue
if g: print("It's true!")
var g = OurTrue
if g: print("It's true!")
Avoiding type conversion with __mlir_i1__
The OurBool type is looking great, and by providing a conversion to Bool,
it can be used anywhere the builtin Bool type can. But we promised you "full
control," and the ability to define your own version of any type built into
Mojo or its standard library. So, why do we depend on __bool__ to convert our
type into Bool (the standard library type)? This is just the formal way for
Mojo to evaluate a type as a boolean, which is useful for real-world scenarios.
However, to define a boolean type from scratch, you have a more low-level
option.
When Mojo evaluates a conditional expression, it actually attempts to convert
the expression to an MLIR i1 value, by searching for the special interface
method __mlir_i1__. (The automatic conversion to Bool occurs because Bool
is known to implement the __mlir_i1__ method.)
Thus, by implementing the __mlir_i1__ special methods in OurBool, we can
create a type that can replaces Bool entirely:
alias OurTrue = OurBool(__mlir_attr.true)
alias OurFalse: OurBool = __mlir_attr.false
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
fn __init__(out self, value: __mlir_type.i1):
self.value = value
# Our new method converts `OurBool` to `i1`:
fn __mlir_i1__(self) -> __mlir_type.i1:
return self.value
alias OurTrue = OurBool(__mlir_attr.true)
alias OurFalse: OurBool = __mlir_attr.false
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
fn __init__(out self, value: __mlir_type.i1):
self.value = value
# Our new method converts `OurBool` to `i1`:
fn __mlir_i1__(self) -> __mlir_type.i1:
return self.value
We can still use OurBool in conditionals just as we did before:
var h = OurTrue
if h: print("No more Bool conversion!")
var h = OurTrue
if h: print("No more Bool conversion!")
But this time, no conversion to Bool occurs. You can try adding print statements to the __bool__ and __mlir_i1__ methods to see for yourself.
Adding functionality with MLIR
There are many more ways we can improve OurBool. Many of those involve implementing special methods, some of which you may recognize from Python, and some which are specific to Mojo. For example, we can implement inversion of a OurBool value by adding a __invert__ method. We can also add an __eq__ method, which allows two OurBool to be compared with the == operator.
What sets Mojo apart is the fact that we can implement each of these using MLIR. To implement __eq__, for example, we use the index.casts operation to cast our i1 values to the MLIR index dialect's index type, and then the index.cmp operation to compare them for equality. And with the __eq__ method implemented, we can then implement __invert__ in terms of __eq__:
alias OurTrue = OurBool(__mlir_attr.true)
alias OurFalse: OurBool = __mlir_attr.false
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
fn __init__(out self, value: __mlir_type.i1):
self.value = value
# ...
fn __mlir_i1__(self) -> __mlir_type.i1:
return self.value
fn __eq__(self, rhs: OurBool) -> Self:
var lhs_index = __mlir_op.`index.casts`[_type=__mlir_type.index](
self.value
)
var rhs_index = __mlir_op.`index.casts`[_type=__mlir_type.index](
rhs.value
)
return Self(
__mlir_op.`index.cmp`[
pred=__mlir_attr.`#index<cmp_predicate eq>`
](lhs_index, rhs_index)
)
fn __invert__(self) -> Self:
return OurFalse if self == OurTrue else OurTrue
alias OurTrue = OurBool(__mlir_attr.true)
alias OurFalse: OurBool = __mlir_attr.false
@register_passable("trivial")
struct OurBool:
var value: __mlir_type.i1
fn __init__(out self, value: __mlir_type.i1):
self.value = value
# ...
fn __mlir_i1__(self) -> __mlir_type.i1:
return self.value
fn __eq__(self, rhs: OurBool) -> Self:
var lhs_index = __mlir_op.`index.casts`[_type=__mlir_type.index](
self.value
)
var rhs_index = __mlir_op.`index.casts`[_type=__mlir_type.index](
rhs.value
)
return Self(
__mlir_op.`index.cmp`[
pred=__mlir_attr.`#index<cmp_predicate eq>`
](lhs_index, rhs_index)
)
fn __invert__(self) -> Self:
return OurFalse if self == OurTrue else OurTrue
This allows us to use the ~ operator with OurBool:
var i = OurFalse
if ~i: print("It's false!")
var i = OurFalse
if ~i: print("It's false!")
This extensible design is what allows even "built in" Mojo types like Bool, Int, and even Tuple to be implemented in the Mojo standard library in terms of MLIR, rather than hard-coded into the Mojo language. This also means that there's almost nothing that those types can achieve that user-defined types cannot.
By extension, this means that the incredible performance that Mojo unlocks for machine learning workflows isn't due to some magic being performed behind a curtain -- you can define your own high-level types that, in their implementation, use low-level MLIR to achieve unprecedented speed and control.
The promise of modularity
As we've seen, Mojo's integration with MLIR allows Mojo programmers to implement zero-cost abstractions on par with Mojo's own built-in and standard library types.
MLIR is open-source and extensible: new dialects are being added all the time, and those dialects then become available to use in Mojo. All the while, Mojo code gets more powerful and more optimized for new hardware -- with no additional work necessary by Mojo programmers.
What this means is that your own custom types, whether those be OurBool or OurTensor, can be used to provide programmers with an easy-to-use and unchanging interface. But behind the scenes, MLIR will optimize those convenient, high-level types for the computing environments of tomorrow.
In other words: Mojo isn't magic, it's modular.
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